Discuss two social psychological theories of aggression

Discuss two social psychological theories of aggression (24 marks) One social psychological theory of aggression is social learning theory. SLT argues that like all behaviour, aggression is learned through both direct and indirect reinforcement. Behaviour which is reinforced, be that positively or negatively – positive reinforcement occurs when the behaviour causes desired outcomes, negative reinforcement occurs when the behaviour causes undesirable outcomes - is more likely to be learned and repeated. Operant conditioning states that learning the behaviour occurs through direct reinforcement, for example if a child cleans their room and is given some sweets (positive reinforcement) or when a child cleans their room so their parent stops†¦show more content†¦Many said that when they were in the experiment they felt that they were expected to act aggressively towards the bobo doll. On the other hand, social learning theory does allow us to explain the enormous cultural variations of aggression. SLT can account for these variations as it places value on social norms. This explains society such as the Amish where there is very little aggression as it indicates the importance of learning over biology. Secondly, through context-dependent learning, SLT accounts for why people may be aggressive in one situation and yet not in another, as we learn that while in some situations aggressive behaviour is rewarded, we also learn that in others it is not. Patterson et al found evidence in favour of social learning theory within his research into the importance of role models in the development of anti-social behaviour. Through questionnaires they found that very aggressive children tend to be raised in homes of high aggression, little affection and little positive feedback. Also, Mead found that the Arapesh (an example of a non-aggressive culture in which aggression is not admired and therefore not modelled or reinforces by adults. However, social learning theory is criticised for being both reductionist and over simplistic in its attempt to explain aggression. It is reductionist as it attempts to break down complex human behaviour into a series of four processes – Attention, Retention, Production andShow MoreRelatedViolence Tends To Threaten The Organization Of Society.1648 Words   |  7 Pagessociety violence is permeated in almost every aspect of our daily lives. Violence in our society enters our homes, workplace, and schools and especially in the media. Violence is the intentional action or inaction causing physical, sexual and psychological injury, including battering, pornography, sexual assault, incest, child abuse and sexual harassment. 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Paper on Work Place Safety - 10014 Words

EMP 5103 RELIABILITY, QUALITY AND SAFETY ENGINEERING EMP 5103 TERM PROJECT ON: WORKPLACE SAFETY SUMMARY In this paper, workplace safety is discussed. Analysis of historical data on workplace accidents were used to establish the need and importance of workplace safety. Relationship between Safety and Reliability Engineering was established to show how reliability engineering techniques and methods can be used to evaluate, identify risk prone activities and machines, with a view of reducing to the bear minimum the faulty equipment and/or factors that cause workplace accidents. Safety management and safety programs like†¦show more content†¦Alice Hamilton became the first woman physician appointed to a faculty position at Harvard University, where she worked at the School of Public Health promoting safe and healthful work practices in the United States. 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Prosocial behavior free essay sample

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION1 1. 1 Introduction2 1. 2 Statement of the Problem 5 1. 3 Significance of Study6 1. 4 Research Objective6 S1. 5 Hypotheses8 1. 6 Terminology Definition9 1. 7 Limitation of the Study11 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW12 2. 1 Family Strength12 2. 2 Relationship between Personal Characteristic and Family Strength12 2. 3 Relationship between Family Characteristic and Family Strength14 2. 4 Prosocial Behavior15 2. 5 Relationship between Personal Characteristic and Prosocial Behavior15 2. 6 Relationship between Family Characteristic and Prosocial Behavior17 2. 7 Relationship between Family Strength and Prosocial Behavior17 2. 8 Summary18 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY18 3. 1 Research Designs19 3. 2 Study Location20 3. 4 Instrumentation23 3. 5 Data Collection24 3. 6 Data Analysis25 REFERENCES27 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. 1Introduction Over the last decade, prosocial behavior becomes increasingly importance in the social context. Prosocial behavior is influenced by the family strength. Based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1992) Ecological System Theory, prosocial is divide into two major factors that is contextual (family and friends) and personal (personal characteristic and sex). Therefore, personal and family characteristic will contribute to family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. Family process which includes of family caring and connectedness is correlated with prosocial behavior involvement of adolescence (Resnick, Harris, Blum, 1993). In addition, the quality of parental attachment within child will contribute to the type and frequency of adolescents’ prosocial behavior (Eberly Montemayor, 1999). In fact, prosocial behavior is one of the actions that made with the intention of benefiting others (Eisenberg Fabes, 1998). The issues of prosocial behavior becomes more frequently as the growing population increases. In Malaysia, the population of our nation is increasing over year. Since there is increasingly of the population, the quality of prosocial behavior has to give priority in discussing. The prosociality in an individual is very importance during the development stage. This is because prosocial behavior is the foundation in social interaction with family, peers, and friends. It also encourages the helping behavior to be nurtured in between human. Therefore, social behavior of adolescence is so significant and should be discussed in the study and in future research. Family strength increasingly important in determine the prosocial behavior of adolescents. Family strength can be defined as a physical bond among the family members. The interaction that conducts from family members will give significant influence on adolescence current or future prosocial behavior. This is because an individual’s behavior will change as the changes in their surroundings. Hence, family strength is very importance in determining the prosocial behavior conducted by the adolescents. In general, family strength is the quality of relationship and bond among the family members which allow promoting well-being of family (Moore, Whitney, Kinukawa, 2009). There are six types of family strength, caring and appreciation, commitment, communication, communities and family ties, working together, and flexibility and openness to change (Goddard, 1999). When one of the family members is facing problems or challenges outside, the other family member will give full support, love, caring, and concern to him or her. There is nothing in the world could make human life happier than to greatly increase the number of strong families (Mace, 1985). In addition, adolescents are chosen to undergo this research is because of they are the second largest population group in Malaysia. Adolescent can be defined as the transitional stage of development which is between childhood and full adulthood. Adolescent is the last stage before becoming adult. Normally, individual in this period of time are biologically adult but it is not fully maturity in emotionally. The age for adolescent is varied in culture. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2011), adolescents’ age is fall in between 10 and 20 years old. In Malaysia, the Ministry of Health defines adolescent as those who aged fall on the range 10 to 19 years old. The early adolescent is between 10 to 14 years old and late adolescent is between 15 to 19 years old. In this transition period, the mentally immature adolescents are very easy to be influenced by their closet environment such as their family (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Peers, families, and communities become the strongest influences on their lives. Although, there are many study has been carry out before. But adolescent still recognize as the most important group for studied. It may due to adolescences are expected to be a period of growth for prosocial behavior tendencies in future (Eisenberg Fabes, 1990). Adolescents are categorized as the most valuable asset of Malaysia. No matter what they will become in the future, a minister, an entrepreneur or even a labor, they have their own contribution to their nation because adolescent is the future of every country. Therefore, it is very important to discuss the prosocial behavior among adolescents to avoid less prosocial behavior which are able to raise risky behavior among them. As shown in Figure 1. 1, parental monitoring will brings adolescents towards the risky behavior in the social context. From statistic as shown in Figure 1. 1, no risky behavior participants are normally tends to proscocial behavior. In addition, high parent monitoring will contribute to no risky behavior and also prosocial behavior. Family plays an important role in construct adolescent’s prosocial behavior. In fact, parental assessments show significantly higher scores in adolescent’s prosocial behavior. The stronger the family strength will produce prosocial bahavior or better communication skills (Scourfield, John, Martin, McGuffin, 2004). Figure 1. 1: Relationship between amount of parental monitoring of adolescent and percentage participating in no risky behaviors Source from: Child Trends, 2009 Finally, the effectiveness of family strength contributes to the prosocial behavior problems. Higher level of family strength between family members will contribute to active prosocial behavior among adolescents. In contrasts, the weakness the family strength among family members will contribute to inactive prosocial behavior among adolescents. The quality of family strength will directly influences on the prosocial behavior of adolescents. Therefore, there is more likely to develop strong family strength to enhance the prosocial behavior problem among adolescents. Basically, the purpose of this study is to describe the relationship between family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior specifically in Serdang, Malaysia. This study is aim to determine the significant of family strength in the transitional stage of development of adolescent. 1. 2Statement of the Problem Research Question: This study aims to determine the relationship between family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior in Serdang. Specifically, this study will identify adolescent’s characteristic (age, gender, self-esteem) and family characteristics (parental education, number of siblings, total family monthly income, parental marital status) that are related to family strength and prosocial behavior. In addition, the relationships between family characteristics with family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior will be determined. In summary, there are five research questions to be addressed in this present study: 1. What is the level of family strength as perceived by adolescents? 2. What is the level of adolescents’ prosocial behavior? 3. What adolescents’ family characteristics are significantly related to family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior? 4. Is family strength significantly related to adolescents’ prosocial behavior? 5. What factors are predictive of family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior? Conceptual Framework: Note: gender 0, 1 Figure 1. 2: The conceptual framework of the relationship between family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior in Serdang 1. 3Significance of Study The study of family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behaviour can be a learning paradigm to search for the relationship between both the variable. The findings may be contributed to various levels as in individual, society and national level. At individual level, the finding of the study may benefits the parents as they can study what is the important factor that affects family strength and thus have effects on their adolescents’ prosocial behaviour. Parents will understand that how family strength have effects on adolescents’ prosocial behaviour. At society level, this study provides a better understanding on how the family strength will affect the adolescents’ prosocial behaviour. The society gain knowledge on the finding and thus could advice or helps the parents who do not have a strong family strength or family with dire prosocial behaviour’s adolescent. As for the national level, the finding of this study could provide a better insight on how family strength can have effects on adolescents’ prosocial behaviour. The finding of the study can be applicable by the authority and NGOs to provide a proper education and knowledge to families so that the bond between the family members can be stronger and how it can affect adolescents’ prosocial behaviour. The greater the number of family with greater strength will have children with better prosocial behaviour. Thus, this will lead the society, in fact country to a higher level of living standard. 1. 4Research Objective Main objective: This study aims to determine the relationship between family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior in Serdang. Specific objectives: 1) To describe personal characteristics (age, gender, self-esteem) of the adolescents. 2) To describe parents characteristics (parental education, number of siblings, total family monthly income, marital status) of the adolescents. 3) To describe the adolescents’ perceived family strength. 4) To describe the adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 5) To determine the relationship between adolescents’ age and family strength. 6) To determine the relationship between adolescents’ gender and family strength. 7) To determine the relationship between adolescents’ self-esteem and family strength. 8) To determine the relationship between parental (father, mother) education and family strength. 9) To determine the relationship between number of siblings and family strength. 10) To determine the relationship between total family monthly income and family strength. 11) To compare differences of family strength across parental marital status. 12) To determine the relationship between adolescents’ age and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 13) To determine the relationship between adolescents’ gender and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 14) To determine the relationship between adolescents’ self-esteem and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 15) To determine the relationship between parental (father, mother) education and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 16) To determine the relationship between number of siblings and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 17) To determine the relationship between total family monthly income and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 18) To compare differences of adolescents’ prosocial behavior across parental marital status. 19) To determine the relationship between family strength and prosocial behaviour. 20) To determine what factors uniquely predict family strength. 21) To determine what factors uniquely predict adolescents’ prosocial behavior. S1. 5Hypotheses How family strength influences on prosocial behavior among adolescents is remained to questions. Besides, does the family strength help in moderating adolescents’ prosocial behavior? The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior in Serdang. This study tests 17 null hypotheses. H01 : There is no significant relationship between adolescents’ age and family strength. H0 2 : There is no significant relationship between adolescents’ gender and family strength. H0 3 : There is no significant relationship between adolescents’ self-esteem and family strength. H0 4 : There is no significant relationship between father’s education and family strength. H? 5 : There is no significant relationship between mother’s education and family strength. H? 6 : There is no significant relationship between number of siblings and family strength. H? 7 : There is no significant relationship between total family monthly income and family strength. H0 8 : There is no significant difference of family strength across parental marital status. H0 9 : There is no significant relationship between adolescents’ age and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. H0 10 : There is no significant relationship between adolescents’ gender and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. H0 11 : There is no significant relationship between adolescents’ self-esteem and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. H0 12 : There is no significant relationship between father’s education and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. H0 13 : There is no significant relationship between mother’s education and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. H0 14 : There is no significant relationship between number of siblings and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. H0 15 : There is no significant relationship between total family monthly income and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. H0 16 : There is no significant difference of adolescents’ prosocial behavior across parents’ marital status. H0 17 : There is no significant relationship between family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 1. 6Terminology Definition Terminology is defined a word in conceptually and operationally. Below are the terms of this study. 1. 6. 1 Personal Characteristic Conceptual: The combination of qualities, features or attributes that distinguishes one person from another Operational: Adolescent’s report on the age, gender, and self-esteem of the respondent. Age refers to the period of time of history during which respondent lives from birth till current period. Gender is being classified into women and men category for the research respondent. Self-esteem will be measured by the Respondent’s score on the Rosenberg’s (1979) self-esteem scale (will be explain later). 1. 6. 2 Family Characteristic Conceptual: The combination of qualities, features or attributes that distinguishes one family from another family. Operational: Report on the, parental education, number of siblings, total family monthly income, and marital status of the respondent’s family. Parent education level will be categorized into level of UPSR, SPM, STPM, Diploma and Degree. Number of siblings is the total number of respondent’s brother and sister. Total family monthly income is the combination of income in Ringgit Malaysia from respondent’s family. Marital refers to the category of married, single parent, remarriage, and others. 1. 6. 3 Family Strength Conceptual: Relationship qualities that contribute to the emotional health and well-being of the family. It is a set of relationship and processes that satisfy support and protect to family members (Moore et al, 2009). Operational: Respondent’s score on Family Functioning Style Scale (FFSS). This scale is developed by Trivette, Dunst, Deal, Hamby, Sexton (1994). The scale consist five domains which is interactional patterns, family values, coping strategies, family commitment and resource mobilization. The higher score the respondent reach, the more strong of respondent’s family strength. 1. 6. 4 Prosocial Behavior Conceptual: A type of behavior that tends to more helping, empathy, feeling concern and caring among each other. Operational: Respondent’s score on Prosocial Tendencies Measure (PTM), which is developed by Johnson et al. , 1989 and Rushton et al. , 1981. This scale is aim to assess a person prosocial behavior. It’s consists of six categories, which is, public, anonymous, dire, emotional, compliant, and altruism. The higher the score of respondent, the more of his or her tends to be prosocial behavior. 1. 6. 5 Adolescent Conceptual: A person who are between the beginning of puberty and adulthood stage. Operational: Respondent who being of the age of 10 years to 19 years. 1. 6. 6 Self-Esteem Conceptual: A person’s overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Operational: Respondent’s score on the Rosenberg’s (1979) self-esteem scale. The higher the score, the higher the self-esteem of respondent are. 1. 7Limitation of the Study Some limitations are found in this study. First, since the findings of the study were based only on a few secondary schools in the area of Serdang, Selangor, therefore the generalization of the findings is limited to the sample assessed. Second, the study assessed family strengths only from the adolescents’ perspective and the parents’ perspectives are not in the dataset, whereby these might differ based on the different perspectives. Finally, since the data is obtained through questionnaire survey, therefore the accuracy of the data is depends solely on the honesty of the respondents. Accuracy of the data obtained violated if the respondents answer it not honestly and there is no ways to determine and measure the honesty of respondents while answered the questionnaire. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW A review of literature which related to the how family strength influences on adolescents’ social behavior is presented on this chapter. Apart from that, this literature review will stressed on the variables influencing different level of family strength and adolescents’ social behavior such as personal characteristic and family characteristic. Among the subtopics that discussed in this chapter are as below: 2. 1 Family Strength Family strength refers to a physical bond and quality relationship among the family members. It also refers to the set of relationship and processes that satisfy support and protect to family members in any situation, especially during times of adversity and change (Moore et al. , 2009). Family member will give love, care, concern, and encourage when one of their family members are facing problem outside. In fact, the level of family strength can be influenced by personal characteristic and family characteristic (Kaslow Hammerschmidt, 1992; Lin Chen, 1994; Menaghan Parcel, 1991; Rozumah Zoozilawati, 2003; Rumaya et al. , 2000; Zarinah Rozumah, 2001). The characteristic of healthy families can be differentiated from dysfunction counterparts (Moore, Chalk, Scarpa, and Vandivere, 2002). Strong family strength can be the role models to create good relationship among the loved ones (Defrain, 1999). There are many researchers have been discussed that strong family strength families focusing on the social, economic, and psychological function that performed by family members (Moore et al. , 2002). For example, a strong family strength would have the high degree of marital status between spouses, satisfying parent-child relationship, and fulfill the needs of the family members from interaction. 2. 2 Relationship between Personal Characteristic and Family Strength Individuals’ personal characteristics have been associated with family strength characteristics. It includes age, gender and self-esteem. 2. 2. 1 Age According to Rumaya et al. (2000), family strength characteristics consist of roles, communication, problem solving, affective responsiveness, affective involvement, behavior control and general functioning where there is a significant correlation between respondent’s age and role in the family which is one of the dimensions of the family strength. Besides that, cognitive and problem-solving skills of older respondents are more developed than the younger in building stronger home environment (Menaghan Parcel, 1991). However, Lin and Chen (1994) suggested that there is also evidence showed that younger respondents tend to appraise their family as stronger compared to older respondents. Despite many researchers have argued on how age is correlated with the family strength, Rozumah and Zoozilawati (2003) found no relationship between age and home environment. 2. 2. 2 Gender Parents are the primary influence on gender role development in the early years of one’s life, whereby it might affects the male and female perception towards family strength in the later years (Kaplan, 1991; Miller, 1987; Santrock, 1994). Gender identities and the expectations towards male and female roles are socialized within the parents-children relationship. Therefore, male and female that have been socialized differently will perceive differently towards family strength. Furthermore, men and women have some biological differences, but it is life experience that reinforces or contradicts those differences. The truth lies in differential socialization, which claims that males and females are taught different appropriate behaviors for their gender, whereby it will affect different perception and behavior of different gender towards family strength (Crespi, n. d. ). 2. 2. 3 Self-esteem Self-esteem is a personal assessment of worthiness which means how oneself truly loving and valuing on itself. High self-esteem provides the basis for success and coping with daily living in a rapidly changing environment which may promote them to face challenges of life more effectively. According to Yabiku, Axinn, and Thornton (1999), family strength correlates with love, support, and deeply involvement of parents in their daily lives. Adolescents shown higher self-esteem when they possessed these elements in their lives. Besides that, capitalizing on their own family strengths can enable self-esteem to grow and prosper in family members regardless of age (Thames and Thomasan, 2008). 2. 3 Relationship between Family Characteristic and Family Strength According to the ecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), it is suggested that family characteristics and family strength can manipulate adolescent growth. In this study, family characteristics (parental education, number of siblings, and the total family’s monthly income, parental marital status) and family strengths (family emotional health and well-being) both are being discussed have relationship within variable. 2. 3. 1 Parental education From the past study, few researches had shown that there was a significant correlation between the level of parental education and family strength (Menaghan Parcel, 1991; Lin Chen, 1994). It shows in a study that the level of parental education had shown no significant relationships with family strength (Zarinah Rozumah, 2009). 2. 3. 2 Number of siblings Number of siblings in the family had shown a significant positive correlation on the total family strength where the higher number of siblings the adolescent have, the higher the total family strength measured. (Zarinah, Rozumah, Rumaya, Mansor, 2009; Zarinah Rozumah, 2009) 2. 3. 3 Total family monthly income According to Moore et al. (2009), it was found that the family strength is associated significantly with family income. Parents with higher income will have greater family strength. 2. 3. 4 Marital status From the past research, parental marital status may not be that contributor that ensures negative relationship between parents and children. (Barber Eccles, 1992). However, from another study, family with marital distruption such as divorced family and single-parent family has a negative effect on family dysfunction. (Wu, Hou, Schimmele, 2008). 2. 4 Prosocial Behavior Prosocial behavior refers to the action which benefits to the society. Prosocial behavior is an intended action that help and benefiting others. Those activities are includes sharing, helping, rescuing, feeling empathy and comforting (Baston, 1991). It mutually giving love, care, concern, helping, and encourage to those who are in need. According to Staub’s theory (2005), prosocial is characterized as the positive human being evaluation which concern about oneself and others welfare. In addition, prosocial behavior is tends to be gave benefit to others, rather than to benefit the self. It often entails risk or cost to the self rather than others (Twenge, Baumeister , DeWall, Ciarocco, Bartels, 2007). Deficits in prosocial skills will leads to lack of moral reasoning and emphatic sensitivity towards other people (Twenge et al. , 2007). 2. 5 Relationship between Personal Characteristic and Prosocial Behavior In this research, we would like to find out the relationship between personal characteristic (age, gender and self-esteem) and prosocial behavior. As what has been discussed on the previous part, prosocial behavior can be categorized as a person who having more tends to prosocial behavior or those less prosocial behaviors. 2. 5. 1 Age Different of age stage maybe will lead to different level of prosocial behavior. According to the study of Luong, Charles, and Fingerman (2011) which found that, a person who getting older, will getting in more prosocial behavior in their social life. This can be interpreting that, the relationship between age and prosocial behavior level are positive correlations. Level of prosocial behavior will increases with the age of a person according to this study. This is because, maybe the older age persons are more contribute to their social relationship compare to those more younger. 2. 5. 2 Gender According to Ma, Cheung and Shek (2007), research divided prosocial behavior into 2 part, one part is tend to be more helping, normative behavior and the other is tend to be co-operation and sharing among each others. Study indicate that there is no any relationship between as gender and prosocial behavior towards tend to more helping and normative behavior among Chinese respondents. However, there is significant relationship between gender in prosocial inclination towards affective relationship, co-operation and sharing. Through this study, they had found that, girls are more tend to sharing and co-operation among each other, whereas, boys respondent are more pretend to maintain an affective relationship with their peers (Ma et al. , 2007). On the other hands, the study which done by Lee, E. (2009) has shown that, the less prosocial behavior is more related on boys if compare among genders. Boys who are in aggression will be more rejected by peers which cause them tend to be less prosocial behavior. 2. 5. 3 Self-esteem Self- esteem is the way of how we evaluate or opinion on our own self. It can also be defined as how deeply and how much we love our self (Mortimer, D. , 2009). It can be category into low self-esteem and high self-esteem. People who are low self-esteem will always think that they are not good enough and being problem with others. They are no confident in doing and complete their task (Mortimer, D. , 2009). Besides that, according to Leary, Tambor, Terdal, and Downs (1995), self-esteem is a good tool to gauge on human’s social ability in acceptance. There is relationship between self-esteem and prosocial behavior. Leary et al. (1995), proposed that, if there is a drop on human self-esteem will result from dropping on prosocial behavior too. Human will become less prosocial behavior if their self-esteem is drop. However, in the research of Blackhart, Nelson, Knowles, and Baumeister (2009), they have found that, there is no significant relationship between the level of self-esteem and the level of prosocial behavior. Respondent who show good sociality then others will not have differ level of self-esteem compare with those not excepted by friends. 2. 6 Relationship between Family Characteristic and Prosocial Behavior A family plays an important role in transition of child to adolescent. There are few studies have shown the relationship between family characteristic and adolescents’ prosocial behavior. 2. 6. 1 Parental education According to Wu et al. (2008), there is a significant relationship between parental education and adolescents’ prosocial behaviour. Higher the parental education level, adolescent will have positive change in prosocial behaviour. 2. 6. 2 Number of siblings According to the study from Yuan (2009), the number of siblings is determined by the number of brothers and sisters that live in the same household as the respondent. The more siblings in the family, adolescents’ helping behavior is higher (Raviv and Bal-Tat, 1980). 2. 6. 3 Total family monthly income From the past research, family income had shown a significant relationship in adolescents’ prosocial behavior. Higher of the family income will affect adolescent tendencies of prosocial behavior. On the other hand, low income status will have negative change in adolescents’ prosocial behavior (Wu et al, 2008). 2. 6. 4 Parental Marital Status According to Lichter, Shanahan, and Gardner (2002), married couple households will have more involvement in volunteer work than single-parent families. From the past research, volunteerism has been indicated as a prosocial behavior (Flanagan, Bowes, Jonsson, Caspo, Sheblanova, 1998; Flanagan Gallay, 1995). Therefore, married couple household will have greater adolescents’ prosocial behavior than single-parent families. 2. 7 Relationship between Family Strength and Prosocial Behavior A well family’s connectedness was consistently associated with less problem behavior involvement. Therefore, it tends to be more prosocial behavior involvement (Kerr, Beck, Shattuck, Kattar, Uriburu, 2003). For example, a person tends to give love, care, concern, helping, and encourage to those who are in need. It often entails risk or cost to the self rather than others (Twenge et al. , 2007). Family process which includes of family caring and connectedness is correlated with prosocial behavior involvement of adolescence (Resnick et al. , 1993). By promoting of family care, concern and loved between family members will enhance the family strength in the family. It will promote prosocial behavior involevement of adolescence in later lives. Adolescence who is come from stable and cohesion fmaily is more likely act in caring and prosocial ways (Cochran Bo, 1989; Romig Bakken, 1992). They tend to give help to the person in need. Moreover, family plays an important role in construct adolescent prosocial behavior. Parents are becoming of their role model and learn the lifestyle which asserted by their parents. Hence, the quality of parental attachment within child will contribute to the type and frequency of adolescents’ prosocial behavior (Eberly Montemayor, 1999). 2. 8 Summary In this chapter, most of the literatures are retrieved from western country. It may have slightly differences in the culture and values. In addition, some of the literatures we have reviewed have been used since many years ago; it might not really shows the realistic on current scenario or situation as the changes is occur every day. Based on the literature review, we found that majority of previous study showed family strength have significant relationship with prosocial behavior in adolescents. However, there were still got some of the literature review show contradiction in their research. But in the final summary of literature findings, we conclude that there is a significant relationship between family strength and adolescents’ prosocial behaviour. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3. 1Research Designs Research design is a plan and structure of an investigation in order to get the analysis and answer of the question. It helps to identify the variables in research and how the variables operate. Besides that, research design is aim to identify the most economical and effective way to provide credible answer. The research design that use in this research is non-experimental research. Non-experimental research will produce concrete and scientific data to the researcher. It has not any explanation for the cause and effect of the phenomena. Our study cannot be considered as experimental research as there are no control groups and subjects are being randomized. In non-experimental research, descriptive research and correlational research are choosing for our study. Descriptive research is use to depict the current state of the phenomena about population that occur at the time where research is running. It involves gathering data that describe events and then organ

Othello Essays (1350 words) - Othello, Iago, Michael Cassio

Othello If one reads Shakespeare's Othello, they can come to the conclusion that it might be one of the his most tragic plays ever written by Shakespeare. Romeo and Juliet, is probably the most famous of his tragic plays, but Othello, has characteristics that, I think make it even more tragic then his other plays, and therefore for that reason, you can say that Othello is the most tragic hero. Othello is a noble man, one who has grace with the ladies but also possesses all the virtues of a military leader that he is. He is a general that is experienced in battle. He has shown that he is reliable and well known in the military and is well respected. His valiant personality, is what draws people to him, as it does for Desdemona. The senators value him and hear what he says when he speaks. This is shown here by one of the senators. "Here comes Barbantio and the valiant Moor", (Act I scene 3, 47) . This is an example of the many comments which shows Othello's character and personality as a person and an officer. They say he is one of the great leaders. Not only does he posses great character and courage, but also dignity. He keeps his control even when he is being accused of witchcraft during the first encounter with the senators when Desdemona's father confronts him about see his daughter. "Most potent, grave, and reverend signors, My very noble and approved good masters; That I have ta'en away this old man's daughter, It is most true; true I have married her. The very head and front of my offending Hath the extent, no more. Rude I am in my speech, And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace;" (I, iii, 91) This is an example of how Othello deals with style and grace under fire, when he is accused of witch craft, by marrying Desdemona. He neither, yells or screams, but explains in a manner that captivates his audience, and draws them in to listen. A major sign that Othello shows his rage and jealousy occurs in Act III, scene 3, when Iago is talking with Othello and tells him that Desdemona is a whore. Othello's breakdown, almost to choke Iago, simply asks Iago "Villain, be sure thou prove my love a whore, Be sure if it. Give me the ocular proof. Or by the worth of mine eternal soul, thou hadst been better have been born a dog. Than answer my waked wrath." (Act III, scene 3) This a point in the play where Iago starts unveil his malicious plan. It makes Othello react, in a manner that he usually does not. Othello has many qualities that contribute to his overall worth. One being his trustfulness. At this point in time, Othello, says that Iago is a man of honor and trust, and therefore has no reason not to distrust him. Many times Othello does not see the fake and malicious acts of Iago. This is done to extend the play and also add to Othello's tragic flaws. Othello trusts too easily. Othello is used to dealing with military people and on the battle field, a place where you put your life in the hands of others and trust is very important. Iago reputation on the battle field is well known and is not tarnished. With Othello being a military leader for most of his life, trusting another military friend, is not uncommon, and therefore, Othello has no reason not to believe or trust Iago. So it can be said that Othello has a number of tragic flaws, one being trust worthy. It is not to say that being trust worthy is a bad characteristic, but to not trust your own wife? Othello, tragically, in Act III, scene 3, is thoroughly corrupted by Iago, says that he believes that Desdemona is honest, but yet he thinks that she is not. This is a part that Othello's "innocence" is torn to bits, because he does not know what to believe anymore. This is also where he comes to Iago for advice, which is what Iago has been waiting for. Othello is seen as a confused man without direction and does know what to do. "By the world, I think that my wife be honest and think that she is not. I think that thou art just and think she is not. Othello then says to Iago: "Damn her, lewd minx, damn her, damn her! Come,